NAME : AHWANDI RISWANTO
CLASS : ENGLISH EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 3-4
1. INTONATION
The intonation of a sentence is the pattern of pitch changes that occurs. The part of a sentence over which a particular pattern extends is called a tone group. A short sentence often forms a single tone group, while longer ones are made up of two or more. We show the major pitch changes in a tone group by lines placed above the sentence. The lines above the sentences are schematic representations of the intonation. The actual picth changes that occur in speech are more complicated, often involving small pitch increases on each streesd syllable.
2. LENGTH
Another area in which languages may differ is in the way that they vary the length of segments. In most varieties of English, varietations in lengths are completely allophonic. In other language variations in length may be used comtrastively . Long vowels contrast with short vowels in many languages.
Probably, one of the most interesting languages in the way that it uses length is Japanese. Japanese may be analyzed in terms of the classical Greek and Latin unit called a mora. A mora is a unit of timing. Each mora takes about the same length of time to say. The most common type of Japanese mora is formed a consonant followed by a vowel.
3. SYLLABLES
The fact syllables are important units is illustrated by the history of writing. There are many writing systems in which there is one symbol for each syllables. Perhaps the best known present-day example is Chinese. But only once in the history of mankind has anybody devised an alphabetic writing system in which syllables were systematically split into their components.
Although nearly everybody can identify syllables almost nobody can define them. In each of these word there are five syllables. Nevertheless, it is curiously difficult to state an objective procedure for locating the number of syllables in word or a phrase.
There are a few cases where people disagree on how many syllables there are in a word in English. Some of these are due to dialectal differences in the way that particular words are spoken. I would say that the world ”predatory” has three syllables because I say. Other people who pronouns it as. Say that it has four syllables. Similarly,there are many words such as “ bottling” and “brightening” that some people pronounce with syllables consonants in the middle, so that they have three syllables, whereas others do not.
One way of avoiding this difficult is to say that syllables are not marked by peaks in sonority but by peaks in prominence. The relative prominence of two sounds depends in part on what their relative sonority would have been if they had had the same length, stress, and pitch; but it also depends in part on their actual stress,length, and pitch. Then we can say that, for example, the [n] in “hidden aims” consititutes a peak of prominence because it has more stress or more length (or both) than the [n] in “hid names”
The problem with this kind of definition is that one cannot state a procedure for combining sonority,length,stress,and pitch so as to form prominence. There is no way in which one can measure the prominence of a sound. As a result, the notion of a peak of prominence any light on how one defines a syllables.
In summery, we can say that there are two types of theories attempting to define syllables. First, there are those in which the definitions are in terms of properties of sounds, such as sonority (acoustic energy) or prominence (some combination of sonority,length,stress, and pitch). Second, there are theories based on definations that are in terms of activities of the speaker, such as producing chest pulses or organizing the components of utterances but as yet none of these theories is entirely satisfactory.
4. STRESS
A stressed syllable is produced by pushing more air out of the lungs in one syllable relative to others. A stressed syllable thus has greater respiratory energy than neighboring unstressed syllables.
It is difficult to define stress froma listener’s point of view. A stressed syllable is often, but not always, louder than an unstressed syllable. It is usually, but not always, on a higher pitch.
In these cases, there is a stress only on the first element of the compound for the nouns but on both elements for the verbs. Stress also ha sa syntactic function in distinguishing between a compound noun, such as “a ‘hot dog” ( a form of food), and an adjective followed by a noun, as in the phrase “a ‘hot ‘dog” (an overhated animal).
Compound nouns have a single stress on the fisrt element, and the adjectival phrases have stresses on both elements.
5. DEGREES OF STRESS
In some longer words it might seem as if there is more than one degree of stress. Stress syllable in a tone group usually carries the tonic accent. In longer words containing two stresses, the apparent difference in the levels of the first and the second stress is really due to the superimposition of an intonation pattern
6. SENTENCE STRESS
The stress that occur on words sometimes become modified when the words are part of sentences. The most frequent modification is the dropping of some of the stresses.
The same kind of phenomenon can be demonstrade with monosyllabic words.
The tendency to avoid having stresses too close together may cause the stress on a polysyllabic word to be on one syllable in one sentence and on another in another.
Not all sentences are as regular as those in the preceding paragraph. I said that stresses tend to recur at regular intervals.
It would be quite untrue to say that there is always an equal interval between stresses in English. It is just that English has a number of processes that act together to maintain the rythim
CLASS : ENGLISH EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 3-4
1. INTONATION
The intonation of a sentence is the pattern of pitch changes that occurs. The part of a sentence over which a particular pattern extends is called a tone group. A short sentence often forms a single tone group, while longer ones are made up of two or more. We show the major pitch changes in a tone group by lines placed above the sentence. The lines above the sentences are schematic representations of the intonation. The actual picth changes that occur in speech are more complicated, often involving small pitch increases on each streesd syllable.
2. LENGTH
Another area in which languages may differ is in the way that they vary the length of segments. In most varieties of English, varietations in lengths are completely allophonic. In other language variations in length may be used comtrastively . Long vowels contrast with short vowels in many languages.
Probably, one of the most interesting languages in the way that it uses length is Japanese. Japanese may be analyzed in terms of the classical Greek and Latin unit called a mora. A mora is a unit of timing. Each mora takes about the same length of time to say. The most common type of Japanese mora is formed a consonant followed by a vowel.
3. SYLLABLES
The fact syllables are important units is illustrated by the history of writing. There are many writing systems in which there is one symbol for each syllables. Perhaps the best known present-day example is Chinese. But only once in the history of mankind has anybody devised an alphabetic writing system in which syllables were systematically split into their components.
Although nearly everybody can identify syllables almost nobody can define them. In each of these word there are five syllables. Nevertheless, it is curiously difficult to state an objective procedure for locating the number of syllables in word or a phrase.
There are a few cases where people disagree on how many syllables there are in a word in English. Some of these are due to dialectal differences in the way that particular words are spoken. I would say that the world ”predatory” has three syllables because I say. Other people who pronouns it as. Say that it has four syllables. Similarly,there are many words such as “ bottling” and “brightening” that some people pronounce with syllables consonants in the middle, so that they have three syllables, whereas others do not.
One way of avoiding this difficult is to say that syllables are not marked by peaks in sonority but by peaks in prominence. The relative prominence of two sounds depends in part on what their relative sonority would have been if they had had the same length, stress, and pitch; but it also depends in part on their actual stress,length, and pitch. Then we can say that, for example, the [n] in “hidden aims” consititutes a peak of prominence because it has more stress or more length (or both) than the [n] in “hid names”
The problem with this kind of definition is that one cannot state a procedure for combining sonority,length,stress,and pitch so as to form prominence. There is no way in which one can measure the prominence of a sound. As a result, the notion of a peak of prominence any light on how one defines a syllables.
In summery, we can say that there are two types of theories attempting to define syllables. First, there are those in which the definitions are in terms of properties of sounds, such as sonority (acoustic energy) or prominence (some combination of sonority,length,stress, and pitch). Second, there are theories based on definations that are in terms of activities of the speaker, such as producing chest pulses or organizing the components of utterances but as yet none of these theories is entirely satisfactory.
4. STRESS
A stressed syllable is produced by pushing more air out of the lungs in one syllable relative to others. A stressed syllable thus has greater respiratory energy than neighboring unstressed syllables.
It is difficult to define stress froma listener’s point of view. A stressed syllable is often, but not always, louder than an unstressed syllable. It is usually, but not always, on a higher pitch.
In these cases, there is a stress only on the first element of the compound for the nouns but on both elements for the verbs. Stress also ha sa syntactic function in distinguishing between a compound noun, such as “a ‘hot dog” ( a form of food), and an adjective followed by a noun, as in the phrase “a ‘hot ‘dog” (an overhated animal).
Compound nouns have a single stress on the fisrt element, and the adjectival phrases have stresses on both elements.
5. DEGREES OF STRESS
In some longer words it might seem as if there is more than one degree of stress. Stress syllable in a tone group usually carries the tonic accent. In longer words containing two stresses, the apparent difference in the levels of the first and the second stress is really due to the superimposition of an intonation pattern
6. SENTENCE STRESS
The stress that occur on words sometimes become modified when the words are part of sentences. The most frequent modification is the dropping of some of the stresses.
The same kind of phenomenon can be demonstrade with monosyllabic words.
The tendency to avoid having stresses too close together may cause the stress on a polysyllabic word to be on one syllable in one sentence and on another in another.
Not all sentences are as regular as those in the preceding paragraph. I said that stresses tend to recur at regular intervals.
It would be quite untrue to say that there is always an equal interval between stresses in English. It is just that English has a number of processes that act together to maintain the rythim
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